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Target cell
04/06/2026

Target cell

Spherocytes are spherical red blood cells that lack the normal central pallor seen in healthy RBCs. They appear smaller,...
04/06/2026

Spherocytes are spherical red blood cells that lack the normal central pallor seen in healthy RBCs. They appear smaller, denser, and more intensely stained on a peripheral blood smear due to loss of membrane surface area.

🩸 Key Features:

* Round, dense RBCs without central pallor
* Reduced membrane surface area-to-volume ratio
* Less flexible and easily trapped in the spleen
* Associated with increased RBC destruction (hemolysis)

📋 Associated Conditions:

* Hereditary spherocytosis
* Autoimmune hemolytic anemia
* Hemolytic transfusion reactions
* Severe burns
* Some hemolytic disorders

🔎 Diagnosis:

* Peripheral blood smear
* Increased MCHC
* Osmotic fragility test
* EMA binding test (flow cytometry)
* Direct Coombs test (for autoimmune causes)

💡 Clinical Significance:

* Important marker of hemolytic anemia
* May cause anemia, jaundice, splenomegaly, and gallstones
* Severity varies from mild to severe depending on the underlying condition

Salmonella Typhi* Salmonella Typhi is a Gram-negative, motile bacillus and the causative agent of typhoid fever.* It is ...
04/06/2026

Salmonella Typhi

* Salmonella Typhi is a Gram-negative, motile bacillus and the causative agent of typhoid fever.
* It is a non-lactose fermenter and produces Hâ‚‚S on culture media.
* Transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route via contaminated food and water.
* Humans are the only natural reservoir, and chronic carriers may harbor the organism in the gallbladder.
* Clinical features include prolonged fever, headache, abdominal pain, constipation or diarrhea, rose spots, and hepatosplenomegaly.
* Diagnosis is by blood culture, stool culture, bone marrow culture, and serological tests.
* Prevention includes safe drinking water, proper sanitation, hand hygiene, and vaccination.

Proteus mirabilis* Proteus mirabilis is a Gram-negative, highly motile rod belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family.* ...
03/06/2026

Proteus mirabilis

* Proteus mirabilis is a Gram-negative, highly motile rod belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family.
* It is famous for its swarming motility on agar plates, producing concentric wave-like growth patterns.
* Produces urease enzyme, which hydrolyzes urea and alkalinizes urine, promoting kidney and bladder stone formation.
* Commonly causes urinary tract infections (UTIs), especially in catheterized patients.
* It is a non-lactose fermenter, Hâ‚‚S producer, and an important opportunistic pathogen in healthcare settings.

Ascaris lumbricoides —* Classification: Intestinal nematode (roundworm) and the largest intestinal helminth infecting hu...
03/06/2026

Ascaris lumbricoides —

* Classification: Intestinal nematode (roundworm) and the largest intestinal helminth infecting humans.
* Habitat: Adult worms reside in the small intestine, mainly the jejunum.
* Morphology: Creamy-white cylindrical worms; male has a curved posterior end, female is larger and straight.
* Infective stage: Embryonated egg containing larva.
* Transmission: Fecal-oral route through ingestion of embryonated eggs in contaminated food, water, or soil.
* Life cycle: Larvae hatch in the intestine → migrate to liver and lungs → ascend trachea → swallowed back → mature in small intestine.
* Clinical features: Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, malnutrition, growth retardation, and intestinal obstruction in heavy infections.
* Complications: Intestinal blockage, biliary ascariasis, pancreatitis, and appendicitis.
* Diagnosis: Stool microscopy showing characteristic fertilized or unfertilized eggs.
* Treatment: Albendazole, mebendazole, or pyrantel pamoate.
* Prevention: Hand hygiene, proper sanitation, washing fruits and vegetables, and safe drinking water.

Entamoeba histolytica —* Classification: Pathogenic intestinal protozoan parasite.* Habitat: Large intestine (caecum and...
03/06/2026

Entamoeba histolytica —

* Classification: Pathogenic intestinal protozoan parasite.
* Habitat: Large intestine (caecum and colon) of humans.
* Morphology: Exists in two forms:
* Trophozoite: Motile, active feeding stage with pseudopodia.
* Cyst: Round, infective stage with up to 4 nuclei.
* Infective stage: Mature quadrinucleate cyst.
* Transmission: Fecal-oral route through contaminated food, water, and poor sanitation.
* Pathogenesis: Invades intestinal mucosa causing flask-shaped ulcers; may spread to the liver causing amoebic liver abscess.
* Clinical features: Amoebic dysentery, abdominal pain, diarrhea with blood and mucus, tenesmus, and weight loss.
* Complications: Liver abscess, lung involvement, and rarely brain abscess.
* Diagnosis: Stool microscopy, antigen detection tests, serology, PCR, and imaging for liver abscess.
* Treatment: Metronidazole or tinidazole followed by a luminal amoebicide.
* Prevention: Safe drinking water, proper sanitation, hand hygiene, and food safety.

Elliptocyte (Ovalocyte) –🔬 Elliptocytes (Ovalocytes) are red blood cells that appear elongated, oval, or cigar-shaped in...
03/06/2026

Elliptocyte (Ovalocyte) –

🔬 Elliptocytes (Ovalocytes) are red blood cells that appear elongated, oval, or cigar-shaped instead of the normal biconcave disc shape. They are commonly seen in hereditary elliptocytosis due to defects in RBC membrane proteins such as spectrin and protein 4.1.

🩸 Key Features:

* Oval or elliptical-shaped RBCs
* A form of poikilocytosis (variation in RBC shape)
* Seen on peripheral blood smear
* May occur in hereditary or acquired disorders

📋 Associated Conditions:

* Hereditary elliptocytosis
* Iron deficiency anemia
* Megaloblastic anemia
* Thalassemia
* Myelodysplastic syndrome
* Liver disease

🔎 Diagnosis:

* Peripheral blood smear examination
* CBC and red cell indices
* Iron, B12, and folate studies when indicated

💡 Clinical Significance:

* Helps identify underlying hematological disorders
* Severity depends on the number of elliptocytes and the underlying disease

Wrong Company 👻👻👻🥸
03/06/2026

Wrong Company 👻👻👻🥸

Escherichia coli * Morphology: Gram-negative, motile rod-shaped bacterium.* Habitat: Normal flora of the human large int...
03/06/2026

Escherichia coli

* Morphology: Gram-negative, motile rod-shaped bacterium.
* Habitat: Normal flora of the human large intestine.
* Culture: Lactose fermenter producing pink colonies on MacConkey agar and metallic green sheen on EMB agar.
* Biochemical reactions: Indole positive, Methyl Red positive, Citrate negative.
* Transmission: Fecal-oral route through contaminated food and water.
* Diseases caused: Diarrhea, urinary tract infections (UTIs), neonatal meningitis, septicemia.
* Virulence factors: Fimbriae, adhesins, enterotoxins, Shiga toxin (in some strains), capsule.
* Diagnosis: Gram stain, culture, biochemical tests, serotyping, PCR.
* Treatment: Depends on strain and antibiotic susceptibility.
* Prevention: Hand hygiene, safe drinking water, proper food handling, and sanitation.

Burr Cell (Echinocyte) – Burr cells, also known as echinocytes, are red blood cells with short, evenly spaced, blunt pro...
02/06/2026

Burr Cell (Echinocyte) –

Burr cells, also known as echinocytes, are red blood cells with short, evenly spaced, blunt projections distributed around the cell surface. They may occur as an artifact or be associated with certain medical conditions.

Key Points:

* Characterized by numerous uniform spicules on the RBC membrane.
* Central pallor is usually preserved.
* Commonly seen in:
* Chronic kidney disease (uremia)
* Pyruvate kinase deficiency
* Liver disease
* Electrolyte imbalances
* Can also result from improper blood smear preparation or prolonged storage of blood.
* Distinguished from acanthocytes, which have irregularly spaced projections.

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