Dr. Ali Umair, MD

16/08/2026

General Pathology — USMLE Buzzwords 🔥

Cellular Adaptation

* ↑ cell size → Hypertrophy
* ↑ cell number → Hyperplasia
* ↓ cell size → Atrophy
* One mature cell type replaced by another → Metaplasia
* Smoking → bronchial squamous metaplasia
* Barrett esophagus → intestinal-type columnar metaplasia
* Exercise → skeletal muscle hypertrophy
* Pregnancy → uterine hypertrophy + hyperplasia

Cell Injury

* ATP depletion → Na⁺/K⁺ pump failure
* Na⁺/K⁺ pump failure → cellular swelling
* Ribosomal detachment → ↓ protein synthesis
* ER dilation → reversible cell injury
* Fat accumulation in liver → steatosis
* Severe mitochondrial damage → irreversible injury
* Ca²⁺ influx → activation of phospholipases/proteases/endonucleases
* ROS → lipid peroxidation + protein/DNA damage
* Reversible injury → cellular swelling + fatty change

Nuclear Changes

* Nuclear shrinkage → Pyknosis
* Nuclear fragmentation → Karyorrhexis
* Nuclear dissolution → Karyolysis
* Pyknosis → karyorrhexis → karyolysis

Necrosis

* Ischemia in most solid organs → Coagulative necrosis
* Myocardial infarction → coagulative necrosis
* Renal infarction → coagulative necrosis
* Splenic infarction → coagulative necrosis
* Brain infarction → Liquefactive necrosis
* Bacterial abscess → liquefactive necrosis
* TB granuloma → Caseous necrosis
* Cheese-like necrosis → caseous necrosis
* Acute pancreatitis → Fat necrosis
* Chalky white deposits → fat necrosis
* Saponification → fat necrosis
* Vasculitis → Fibrinoid necrosis
* Malignant hypertension → fibrinoid necrosis
* Dry gangrene → coagulative necrosis
* Wet gangrene → liquefactive component
* Gas gangrene → Clostridium perfringens

Apoptosis

* Programmed cell death → Apoptosis
* Cell shrinkage → apoptosis
* Chromatin condensation → apoptosis
* Apoptotic bodies → apoptosis
* No significant inflammation → apoptosis
* Intrinsic pathway → Mitochondria
* Cytochrome c release → Caspase-9
* Extrinsic pathway → Fas/TNF receptor
* Fas → Caspase-8
* Executioner caspases → 3, 6, 7
* p53 activation → apoptosis after severe DNA damage
* BCL-2 → inhibits apoptosis
* BAX/BAK → promote apoptosis

Free Radicals

* Superoxide → O₂⁻
* Hydrogen peroxide → H₂O₂
* Hydroxyl radical → OH•
* Superoxide dismutase → O₂⁻ → H₂O₂
* Catalase → H₂O₂ → H₂O + O₂
* Glutathione peroxidase → H₂O₂ → H₂O
* Iron + H₂O₂ → hydroxyl radicals → Fenton reaction
* Reperfusion after ischemia → ROS injury

Acute Inflammation

* Acute inflammation → Neutrophils
* Chronic inflammation → Macrophages + lymphocytes
* First vascular response → Vasodilation
* Increased vascular permeability → Exudation
* Protein-rich fluid → Exudate
* Low-protein fluid → Transudate
* Slow blood flow → Stasis
* Stasis → leukocyte margination

Leukocyte Recruitment

* Rolling → Selectins
* E-selectin → endothelial cells
* P-selectin → endothelial cells/platelets
* L-selectin → leukocytes
* Firm adhesion → Integrins
* Integrins bind ICAM-1/VCAM-1
* Diapedesis → PECAM-1/CD31
* Chemotaxis → movement toward inflammatory signal
* C5a → neutrophil chemotaxis
* LTB4 → neutrophil chemotaxis
* IL-8 → neutrophil chemotaxis

Complement

* C3b → Opsonization
* C3a → Anaphylatoxin
* C5a → Chemotaxis
* C5a → neutrophil activation
* C5b-9 → MAC
* MAC → cell lysis
* C3a + C5a → mast-cell degranulation

Inflammatory Mediators

* Histamine → vasodilation + ↑ vascular permeability
* Bradykinin → Pain
* Bradykinin → vasodilation + ↑ permeability
* PGE₂ → Fever + pain
* TXA₂ → platelet aggregation + vasoconstriction
* PGI₂ → vasodilation + ↓ platelet aggregation
* LTB4 → neutrophil chemotaxis
* LTC4/LTD4/LTE4 → Bronchoconstriction
* IL-1 → Fever
* TNF-α → endothelial activation + fever
* IL-6 → Acute-phase response
* IL-8 → neutrophil chemotaxis
* IFN-γ → Macrophage activation
* TGF-β → Fibrosis

Chronic Inflammation

* Chronic inflammation → macrophages + lymphocytes
* Chronic inflammation → tissue destruction
* Chronic inflammation → fibrosis
* Granuloma → activated macrophages surrounded by lymphocytes
* Epithelioid macrophages → granuloma
* Giant cells → fused macrophages
* IFN-γ → macrophage activation
* TNF-α → granuloma maintenance

High-Yield Healing

* Healing by first intention → clean surgical wound
* Healing by second intention → large wound/tissue loss
* Granulation tissue → new vessels + fibroblasts
* Granulation tissue ≠ granuloma
* VEGF → Angiogenesis
* FGF → fibroblast proliferation
* TGF-β → collagen synthesis + fibrosis
* Type III collagen → early wound
* Type I collagen → mature scar
* Vitamin C deficiency → impaired collagen hydroxylation
* Zinc deficiency → impaired wound healing
* Keloid → scar extends beyond original wound
* Hypertrophic scar → remains within original wound boundaries

15/08/2026

This is the pharmacology mnemonics videos playlist ✅💯

It is in hindi/Urdu.

https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLmuEmrheMl8dEfPbk_KWFuW9Nm25tfOHO&si=S83KIJ6AOyUJQTxE

Share your videos with friends, family, and the world

15/08/2026

🦠 USMLE MICROBIOLOGY:HIGH-YIELD MNEMONICS🔥
MUST READ 💯

1. Gram-Positive Cocci

Staphylococcus

Staph = clusters + catalase positive

* S. aureus → “AUREUS = GOLD”
* Golden colonies
* Coagulase +
* Catalase +
* Protein A
* Abscesses
* Endocarditis
* Osteomyelitis
* Toxic shock
* Food poisoning

Protein A = “A grabs Antibody”

* Binds Fc portion of IgG → prevents opsonization.

S. aureus diseases

“A-B-C-D-E”

* Abscess
* Bone infection
* Coagulase +
* Desquamation / toxic shock
* Endocarditis

💀Staph epidermidis

“EPIDERMIDIS = Equipment”

* IV catheters
* Prosthetic valves
* Prosthetic joints
* Biofilm
* Novobiocin sensitive

💀Staph saprophyticus

“SAPRO = Sexually Active women + P*e”

* UTI
* Young sexually active women
* Novobiocin resistant

2. Streptococcus

Strep = chains + catalase negative

S. pyogenes — Group A

“PYOGENES = Pus + Pharyngitis + Post”

* Pharyngitis
* Impetigo
* Scarlet fever
* Rheumatic fever
* Post-strep glomerulonephritis
* Necrotizing fasciitis

M protein = “M for Makes you evade Macrophages”

* Prevents phagocytosis.

Rheumatic fever

“JONES”

* Joints
* O = heart
* Nodules
* Erythema marginatum
* Sydenham chorea

👶S. agalactiae — Group B

“B = Baby”

* Neonatal meningitis
* Neonatal sepsis
* Pneumonia

B = CAMP positive

🫁S. pneumoniae

“PNEUMO = Meningitis + Pneumonia + Otitis + Sinusitis”

* Lancet-shaped diplococci
* α-hemolytic
* Optochin sensitive
* Encapsulated
* IgA protease

“Spleen hates encapsulated bacteria”
High risk:

* Asplenia
* Sickle cell disease
* Splenectomy

Encapsulated organisms:
“Some People Have Special Capsules”

* S. pneumoniae
* P. meningitidis
* H. influenzae
* Salmonella

❤️Viridans streptococci

“VIRIDANS = Valve + Vegetables”

* Dental procedures
* Dental caries
* Subacute endocarditis
* Dextran production
* α-hemolytic
* Optochin resistant

3. Enterococcus

“Enterococcus = GI + UTI + HEART”

* Normal GI flora
* UTI
* Endocarditis
* Biliary tract infection

E. faecalis / E. faecium

* Bile esculin +
* PYR +
* Grows in 6.5% NaCl
* Vancomycin resistance possible → VRE

🧫 4. Gram-Negative Cocci

Neisseria

N. gonorrhoeae

“GONO = Ge***al + Gonococci inside Neutrophils”

* Gram-negative diplococci
* Intracellular
* Oxidase +
* Glucose fermentation only
* Pili antigenic variation
* Urethritis
* PID
* Septic arthritis

Gonorrhea = “No capsule”

🧠N. meningitidis

“MENINGITIS = Meningitis + Meningococcemia”

* Gram-negative diplococci
* Oxidase +
* Glucose + maltose
* Capsule
* Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome

“Meningo = Maltose”

Risk:

* Terminal complement deficiency C5–C9

“5 to 9 keeps Neisseria alive”

🧫 5. Gram-Negative Rods

E. coli

“E. coli = Everything in the Intestine”

Common:

* UTI
* Neonatal meningitis
* Sepsis
* Traveler’s diarrhea

ETEC

“ETEC = Traveler”

* Traveler’s diarrhea
* ↑ cAMP
* LT toxin

LT = Lots of cAMP

EHEC

“EHEC = Hemorrhagic”

* Bloody diarrhea
* Shiga-like toxin
* HUS
* Undercooked beef
* O157:H7

“EHEC = HUS”

ETEC vs EHEC

“ETEC = watery, EHEC = bloody”

🪼Klebsiella

“Klebsiella = Kapsule + Kurrant jelly”

* Thick capsule
* Currant-jelly sputum
* Alcohol use disorder
* Diabetes
* Aspiration pneumonia
* UTI

🫣Proteus

“PROTEUS = P*e + Swarm”

* UTI
* Urease +
* Struvite stones
* Alkaline urine
* Swarming motility

“Proteus produces urease”

Urease-positive organisms:
“PUK”

* Proteus
* Ureaplasma
* Klebsiella?
Better high-yield group:
* Proteus
* Morganella
* Providencia
* Helicobacter pylori

🍀Pseudomonas

“PSEUDO = Blue-Green Burn”

* Blue-green pigment
* Grape-like odor
* Oxidase +
* Exotoxin A
* CF
* Burn patients
* Neutropenic patients
* Ecthyma gangrenosum
* Malignant otitis externa

Exotoxin A = “A stops protein synthesis”

* ADP-ribosylates EF-2.

Salmonella

“SALMONELLA = Salmon + Sickle”

* Undercooked poultry/eggs
* Motile
* H2S +
* Intracellular
* Osteomyelitis in sickle cell disease

S. typhi

“Typhi = Terminal ileum + Typhoid”

* Rose spots
* Relative bradycardia
* Gallbladder reservoir
* Chronic carrier

Shigella

“SHIGELLA = Shiga + Seizures”

* Bloody diarrhea
* HUS
* Low infectious dose
* No motility
* Shiga toxin
* Seizures in children

Shigella = “Sick, still, Shiga”

* Sick
* Nonmotile
* Shiga toxin

Yersinia

Y. enterocolitica

“YERSINIA = Yersinia + Yersinia looks like appendicitis”

* Pseudoappendicitis
* Pork
* Terminal ileum

Y. pestis

“PEST = Plague + flea”

* Buboes
* Fleas
* Rats
* Bipolar staining

“Safety pin appearance”

🧫 6. Curved / Special Gram-Negative Rods

Vibrio cholerae

“CHOLERA = Chloride + cAMP”

* Rice-water diarrhea
* ↑ cAMP
* ↑ Cl⁻ secretion
* No invasion
* Profuse watery diarrhea

“Cholera = CAMP goes up”

Campylobacter jejuni

“CAMPY = Chicken + Guillain-Barré”

* Undercooked poultry
* Bloody diarrhea
* Curved/S-shaped
* Oxidase +
* Guillain-Barré syndrome
* Reactive arthritis

“Campy curves like a comma”

Helicobacter pylori

“H. PYLORI = PUD + Urease”

* Peptic ulcer disease
* Gastric adenocarcinoma
* MALT lymphoma
* Urease +

“H. pylori raises pH”

🧫 7. Anaerobes

Bacteroides fragilis

“Bacteroides = Below the diaphragm”

* Intra-abdominal abscess
* Anaerobic
* Capsule

Clostridium

C. tetani

“TETANUS = Tight muscles”

* Spastic paralysis
* Lockjaw
* Risus sardonicus
* Puncture wound

Tetanus toxin blocks GABA + glycine

C. botulinum

“BOTULINUM = Baby + Big floppy”

* Flaccid paralysis
* Descending paralysis
* Diplopia
* Dysphagia
* Constipation
* Home-canned foods
* Honey in infants

Botulinum blocks ACh release

C. perfringens

“PERFRINGENS = Gas + Meat”

* Gas gangrene
* Myonecrosis
* Trauma
* Contaminated meat
* Double-zone hemolysis

α-toxin = lecithinase

C. difficile

“C. diff = Diarrhea after Drugs”

* Antibiotics
* Pseudomembranous colitis
* Toxin A = enterotoxin
* Toxin B = cytotoxin

🧬 8. Acid-Fast Bacteria

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

“TB = Th1 + IFN-γ + Granuloma”

* Acid-fast
* Intracellular
* Caseating granulomas
* Upper-lobe cavitation
* PPD/IGRA
* Reactivation

“TB likes the TOP”

Mycobacterium leprae

“LEPRAE = Skin + Schwann cells”

* Skin lesions
* Peripheral neuropathy
* Schwann cells
* Cannot be cultured in vitro

Tuberculoid

“Strong T-cell response = few lesions”

Lepromatous

“Weak T-cell response = many lesions”

🦠 9. Spirochetes

Treponema pallidum

“SYPHILIS = Stages”

Primary

“1 = painless Chancre”

Secondary

“2 = palms + soles”

Tertiary

“3 = GAT”

* Gumma
* Aortic aneurysm
* Tabes dorsalis

Conge***al syphilis = “SNuffles + Saber shins + Teeth”

Borrelia burgdorferi

“LYME = Bulls-eye + BELL”

* Erythema migrans
* Facial nerve palsy
* AV block
* Arthritis
* Deer tick

L = Lyme
Y = deer
M = migrans

🦠 10. Mycoplasma

“MYCO = No cell wall”

* No peptidoglycan
* Cannot use β-lactams
* Atypical pneumonia
* Cold agglutinins
* Young adults

“Mycoplasma = walking pneumonia”

🦠 11. Chlamydia

“Chlamydia = intracellular”

C. trachomatis

* Urethritis
* PID
* Neonatal conjunctivitis
* Neonatal pneumonia
* Trachoma
* LGV

“TRACHOMA = T for Tears + blindness”

🍄 12. Fungi

Candida

“CANDIDA = CREAM + CAT”

* Candida albicans
* Oral thrush
* Vaginitis
* Esophagitis
* Endocarditis
* Germ tubes
* Budding yeast + pseudohyphae

“CANDIDA = Germ tube”

Cryptococcus

“CRYPTO = Capsule + India ink”

* Encapsulated yeast
* Meningitis
* AIDS
* India ink
* Mucicarmine +
* Narrow-based budding

“Crypto hides in a capsule”

Histoplasma

“HISTO = Ohio + macrophages”

* Ohio/Mississippi River valleys
* Bird/bat droppings
* Intracellular yeast
* Macrophages
* Mimics TB

“Histo hides in macrophages”

Blastomyces

“BLASTO = Broad-based budding”

* Broad-based budding
* Pulmonary disease
* Skin lesions
* Bone involvement

Coccidioides

“COCCI = California + Cough”

* Southwestern US
* Desert
* Spherules
* Eosinophilia
* “Valley fever”

“Cocci = Cactus/California”

Aspergillus

“ASPERGILLUS = Acute angle”

* Septate hyphae
* Acute-angle branching
* 45°
* Aspergilloma
* Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
* Invasive disease in neutropenia

“Aspergillus = 45°”

Mucor

“MUCOR = Wide + Right angle”

* Broad, nonseptate hyphae
* 90° branching
* Diabetic ketoacidosis
* Rhinocerebral disease

“Mucor = 90°”

🦠 13. Viruses — High-Yield Mnemonics

DNA viruses

Herpesviruses

“HHH8 = Herpes family”

* HSV-1
* HSV-2
* VZV
* EBV
* CMV
* HHV-6
* HHV-7
* HHV-8

“1,2,3 = HSV/VZV”

* HSV-1 → oral
* HSV-2 → ge***al
* VZV → chickenpox/shingles

EBV

“EBV = B cells”

* CD21
* Heterophile antibodies
* Mononucleosis
* Atypical lymphocytes
* Burkitt lymphoma
* Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
* Hodgkin lymphoma

Amoxicillin + EBV → rash

CMV

“CMV = Cow’s Milk + Owl eye”

* Conge***al infection
* Periventricular calcifications
* Hearing loss
* Retinitis
* Esophagitis
* Owl-eye inclusions

“CMV = Binds CD34?”
More useful: CMV is the major conge***al herpesvirus causing periventricular calcifications.

VZV

“VZV = Varicella → Zoster”

Conge***al:

* Limb hypoplasia
* Dermatomal scars
* Eye abnormalities

Adenovirus

“ADENO = Airway + Diarrhea + Eye”

* Pharyngitis
* Pneumonia
* Conjunctivitis
* Gastroenteritis

Parvovirus B19

“B19 = Big cheeks + Bone marrow”

* Slapped-cheek rash
* Aplastic crisis
* Hydrops fetalis
* Arthralgia

Targets erythroid precursors

🧬 14. RNA Viruses

Influenza

“Influenza = HA + NA”

* H = Hemagglutinin → attachment
* N = Neuraminidase → release

Antigenic drift = seasonal
Antigenic shift = pandemic

RSV

“RSV = Respiratory Syncytial Virus = infants”

* Bronchiolitis
* Wheezing
* Pneumonia
* Syncytia
* RSV prophylaxis in high-risk infants

Measles

“MEASLES = 3 C + Koplik”

* Cough
* Coryza
* Conjunctivitis
* Koplik spots
* Maculopapular rash

Complication = SSPE

Mumps

“MUMPS = Parotitis + Pancreas + Testes”

* Parotitis
* Orchitis
* Pancreatitis
* Aseptic meningitis

Rubella

“RUBELLA = FETAL”

Conge***al:

* Fetal growth restriction
* Eye → cataracts
* Transparent? → sensorineural deafness
* Artery → PDA
* Learning problems

Classic:
“Blueberry muffin rash + cataracts + PDA + deafness”

🦠 15. Hepatitis

Hepatitis A

“A = Acute + Alimentary”

* Fecal-oral
* No chronic infection

Hepatitis B

“B = Blood + Baby + chronic”

Serology:
HBsAg = infection
Anti-HBs = immunity
Anti-HBc = exposure

Hepatitis C

“C = Chronic + Cancer”

* Chronic hepatitis
* Cirrhosis
* Hepatocellular carcinoma
* Mixed cryoglobulinemia

Hepatitis D

“D depends on B”

* Requires HBsAg

Hepatitis E

“E = Expectant mother”

* Fecal-oral
* Severe disease in pregnancy

🦠 16. HIV

“HIV = CD4 falls”

Opportunistic infections:

CD4

15/08/2026

Retain your first aid book like this 📖🩺

14/08/2026

🦴 50 SUPER HIGH-YIELD MUSCULOSKELETAL FOR USMLE 💯🔥✅

🔥 Arthritis / Rheumatology

1. Gout → needle-shaped, negatively birefringent MSU crystals; podagra.
2. Pseudogout → rhomboid, positively birefringent CPPD crystals; knee/wrist.
3. Septic arthritis → acute monoarthritis + fever; urgent joint aspiration.
4. Gonococcal arthritis → migratory polyarthritis → tenosynovitis → pustular skin lesions.
5. Osteoarthritis → pain worse with use, better with rest; DIP/PIP/1st CMC/knee/hip.
6. Rheumatoid arthritis → symmetric MCP/PIP involvement + morning stiffness >1 hr.
7. RA antibodies → anti-CCP = highly specific; RF less specific.
8. RA complications → atlantoaxial subluxation, Felty syndrome, nodules, ILD.
9. Felty syndrome → RA + splenomegaly + neutropenia.
10. SLE arthritis → usually nonerosive, unlike RA.
11. Ankylosing spondylitis → young male + inflammatory back pain + sacroiliitis.
12. AS association → HLA-B27, uveitis, aortic regurgitation, apical lung fibrosis.
13. Reactive arthritis → arthritis + urethritis/cervicitis + conjunctivitis; HLA-B27.
14. Psoriatic arthritis → DIP disease, dactylitis, nail pitting, asymmetric arthritis.
15. IBD-associated arthritis → peripheral arthritis and/or sacroiliitis.
16. Polymyalgia rheumatica → age >50 + proximal shoulder/hip aching + ↑ESR.
17. Giant cell arteritis → headache + jaw claudication + visual symptoms → immediate steroids.
18. Dermatomyositis → proximal weakness + heliotrope rash/Gottron papules.
19. Polymyositis → proximal muscle weakness without characteristic skin rash.
20. Systemic sclerosis → Raynaud + skin tightening + GI dysmotility; anti-Scl-70.

🦠 Bone & Joint Infections

21. Osteomyelitis → bone pain + fever; S. aureus is the classic organism.
22. Sickle-cell osteomyelitis → think Salmonella.
23. IV drug use osteomyelitis → commonly S. aureus.
24. Vertebral osteomyelitis → back pain + fever; consider S. aureus.
25. Septic arthritis → purulent synovial fluid + very high WBC.
26. Necrotizing fasciitis → severe pain out of proportion + rapidly progressive swelling → emergency surgical debridement.
27. Clostridial myonecrosis → gas gangrene + severe toxicity + gas in tissues.
28. Tuberculous spine (Pott disease) → vertebral destruction + back pain ± neurologic deficits.

🦴 Fractures / Trauma

29. Scaphoid fracture → anatomical snuffbox tenderness; risk of avascular necrosis.
30. Colles fracture → distal radius fracture with dorsal displacement → dinner-fork deformity.
31. Smith fracture → distal radius fracture with volar displacement.
32. Boxer’s fracture → 5th metacarpal neck fracture.
33. Surgical neck humerus fracture → axillary nerve injury.
34. Midshaft humerus fracture → radial nerve injury.
35. Supracondylar humerus fracture → brachial artery + median nerve risk.
36. Posterior hip dislocation → dashboard injury + hip flexed/adducted; sciatic nerve risk.
37. Anterior shoulder dislocation → arm abducted/external rotation; axillary nerve risk.
38. Compartment syndrome → severe pain + pain with passive stretch → fasciotomy.
39. Fat embolism syndrome → long-bone fracture + hypoxemia + neurologic symptoms + petechiae.
40. Salter-Harris fractures →
I = physis
II = physis + metaphysis
III = physis + epiphysis
IV = all 3
V = crush injury.

🦵 Pediatric / Developmental

41. SCFE → obese adolescent + hip/knee pain + externally rotated leg.
42. Legg-Calvé-Perthes → avascular necrosis of femoral head in children; classically 4–8 years.
43. Developmental dysplasia of hip → Ortolani/Barlow abnormalities.
44. Osgood-Schlatter disease → adolescent athlete + tibial tubercle pain.
45. Osteogenesis imperfecta → defective type I collagen → fractures + blue sclera + hearing loss.
46. Rickets/osteomalacia → vitamin D deficiency → defective mineralization; widened growth plates in children.

💪 Muscle / Soft Tissue / Spine

47. Rhabdomyolysis → muscle injury + markedly ↑CK + myoglobinuria → risk of AKI.
48. Rotator cuff injury → supraspinatus commonly affected; pain with abduction.
49. Carpal tunnel syndrome → median nerve compression → paresthesia of lateral 3½ digits.
50. Cauda equina syndrome → saddle anesthesia + bladder/bowel dysfunction + bilateral leg symptoms → emergency MRI/surgical evaluation.

13/08/2026

Start your journey with difficult chapter 💯

13/08/2026

Stuck in progress ? Watch this 💙

12/08/2026

Usmle step1, Step2, Step3 and Oet resources ✅

12/08/2026

Natus EEG is a system used to record and monitor cerebral electrical activity through scalp electrodes. It supports routine, video, and continuous EEG monitoring.

Indications:

* Suspected seizures/epilepsy
* Nonconvulsive seizures/status epilepticus
* Altered mental status
* Unexplained loss of consciousness
* Encephalopathy
* ICU/critical-care neurological monitoring
* Correlation of clinical events with EEG activity

Pros:

* Noninvasive and safe
* No radiation
* Detects electrographic/subclinical seizures
* Continuous and video monitoring available
* Useful at the bedside/ICU
* Real-time assessment of brain electrical activity

Cons:

* Does not show brain anatomy like CT/MRI
* Artifacts can interfere with interpretation
* Normal EEG does not rule out epilepsy
* Short routine EEG may miss intermittent seizures
* Requires trained technical and physician interpretation
* Prolonged monitoring can be uncomfortable and resource-intensive

11/08/2026

50 high-yield pharmacology, focused on the kinds of mechanism → adverse effect 🔥✅

1. ACE inhibitors (−pril) → ↓Ang II → cough, hyperkalemia, angioedema; contraindicated in pregnancy and bilateral renal artery stenosis.
2. ARBs (−sartan) → block AT₁ receptor → hyperkalemia but no bradykinin-mediated cough.
3. Thiazides → ↓NaCl reabsorption in DCT → hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, hyponatremia, hyperuricemia.
4. Loop diuretics (−semide) → inhibit NKCC2 → hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, ototoxicity; strongest diuretics.
5. Spironolactone/eplerenone → aldosterone antagonists → hyperkalemia; spironolactone causes gynecomastia.
6. Acetazolamide → carbonic anhydrase inhibitor → metabolic acidosis, hypokalemia, calcium phosphate stones.
7. Mannitol → osmotic diuretic → pulls water into urine; avoid in heart failure/pulmonary edema.
8. Digoxin → inhibits Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase → ↑intracellular Ca²⁺; causes arrhythmias, GI symptoms, xanthopsia.
9. β-blockers → ↓HR, ↓contractility, ↓renin; can cause bradycardia and bronchospasm.
10. Propranolol → nonselective β-blocker → avoid in asthma; masks hypoglycemia symptoms.
11. Metoprolol/atenolol → β₁-selective blockers → preferred over nonselective β-blockers in patients with reactive airway disease when a β-blocker is necessary.
12. Verapamil/diltiazem → non-DHP Ca²⁺ channel blockers → ↓AV conduction; can cause bradycardia and constipation.
13. Amlodipine/nifedipine → DHP Ca²⁺ channel blockers → peripheral edema, flushing, headache.
14. Hydralazine → arteriolar vasodilator → reflex tachycardia, drug-induced lupus.
15. Minoxidil → potent arteriolar dilator → hypertrichosis, reflex tachycardia, fluid retention.
16. Nitroprusside → ↑NO → rapid arterial + venous dilation; prolonged use can cause cyanide toxicity.
17. Nitrates → ↑NO → venodilation → ↓preload; never combine with PDE-5 inhibitors.
18. Statins (−statin) → inhibit HMG-CoA reductase → ↓LDL; adverse effects include myopathy and elevated transaminases.
19. Ezetimibe → blocks intestinal cholesterol absorption via NPC1L1 → ↓LDL.
20. PCSK9 inhibitors (evolocumab, alirocumab) → prevent LDL-receptor degradation → markedly ↓LDL.
21. Warfarin → inhibits vitamin K epoxide reductase → ↑PT/INR; teratogenic and initially decreases protein C.
22. Heparin → activates antithrombin → inhibits IIa and Xa; adverse effect: HIT with thrombosis.
23. LMWH → primarily inhibits Xa via antithrombin; less HIT than unfractionated heparin.
24. Dabigatran → direct thrombin (IIa) inhibitor; reversal = idarucizumab.
25. Apixaban/rivaroxaban → direct Xa inhibitors; reversal = andexanet alfa in appropriate severe bleeding situations.
26. Aspirin → irreversible COX inhibition → ↓TXA₂; low-dose aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation.
27. Clopidogrel → irreversible P2Y12 ADP receptor blocker → inhibits platelet activation; important after coronary stenting.
28. NSAIDs → inhibit COX → ↓prostaglandins → GI ulcers, kidney injury, sodium retention.
29. Acetaminophen → analgesic/antipyretic with minimal peripheral anti-inflammatory effect; overdose → hepatic necrosis; antidote = N-acetylcysteine.
30. Opioids → μ-receptor agonists → respiratory depression, miosis, constipation; naloxone reverses acute toxicity.
31. Benzodiazepines → increase frequency of GABA-A Cl⁻ channel opening → sedation; flumazenil reverses their effect.
32. Barbiturates → increase duration of GABA-A Cl⁻ channel opening → respiratory depression and CYP450 induction.
33. SSRIs → first-line for depression/anxiety → adverse effects include sexual dysfunction and serotonin syndrome.
34. TCAs → inhibit NE/5-HT reuptake; overdose → cardiotoxicity with widened QRS; treat with sodium bicarbonate.
35. MAO inhibitors → inhibit monoamine breakdown; tyramine-rich foods can cause hypertensive crisis.
36. Bupropion → NE/DA reuptake inhibitor → useful for smoking cessation; lowers seizure threshold.
37. Lithium → classic treatment for bipolar disorder; causes nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, hypothyroidism, tremor.
38. Valproate → broad-spectrum antiseizure drug; causes neural tube defects, hepatotoxicity, pancreatitis.
39. Lamotrigine → blocks voltage-gated Na⁺ channels; major adverse effect = SJS/TEN.
40. Carbamazepine → Na⁺ channel blocker → hyponatremia, agranulocytosis, SJS/TEN; induces CYP450.
41. Phenytoin → Na⁺ channel blocker → gingival hyperplasia, hirsutism, ataxia; induces CYP450.
42. Levodopa/carbidopa → increases CNS dopamine for Parkinson disease; adverse effects include dyskinesias and hallucinations.
43. Dopamine agonists (pramipexole, ropinirole) → Parkinson treatment → impulse-control disorders and sleep attacks.
44. Haloperidol → D₂ antagonist → EPS, hyperprolactinemia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
45. Atypical antipsychotics → 5-HT₂A + D₂ antagonism; metabolic adverse effects include weight gain, diabetes, dyslipidemia.
46. Clozapine → effective for treatment-resistant schizophrenia and reduces su***de risk; requires monitoring for agranulocytosis.
47. Metformin → first-line type 2 diabetes drug → ↓hepatic gluconeogenesis; adverse effect = GI upset and lactic acidosis.
48. Sulfonylureas → close pancreatic β-cell KATP channels → ↑insulin release; adverse effects = hypoglycemia and weight gain.
49. SGLT2 inhibitors (−gliflozin) → cause urinary glucose loss → ge***al mycotic infections, volume depletion, euglycemic DKA.
50. GLP-1 receptor agonists (semaglutide, liraglutide) → ↑glucose-dependent insulin, ↓glucagon, slow gastric emptying → weight loss, nausea; possible gallbladder disease.