16/05/2026
CLINICAL OFFICERS LEARNING CORNER ANSWERS PHARMACOLOGY Q & A
SECTION C: FILLING IN THE BLANKS
The following abbreviations are used to show the time of administration or application. Write their meaning in English.
a) o.d. – once daily (every day).
b) qid or qd – quaque die (qd = once daily; qid = four times daily).
c) Stat – immediately (give at once).
d) Pc – post cibum (after meals).
e) i.c. – inter cibum (between meals).
f) i.m. – intramuscular (intramuscular injection).
g) nocte – at night (give in the night).
h) Pm – post meridiem (afternoon).
i) gutt. – guttae (drops).
j) Tds or t.i.d. – ter in die (three times daily).
SECTION D: SHORT NOTES (answer any FOUR)
Three principles of antimicrobial therapy
👉Selectivity
-the drug should target the pathogen without harming the host.
👉Appropriate spectrum
-choose an agent with activity against the likely causative organism.
👉Pharmacokinetic optimization
-ensure the drug reaches the infection site at effective concentrations.
Analgesic ladder for acute pain management
👉Step 1
non‑opioids (e.g., paracetamol, NSAIDs) for mild pain.
👉Step 2
weak opioids + non‑opioids (e.g., codeine + paracetamol) for moderate pain.
👉Step 3
strong opioids (e.g., morphine) for severe pain.
Mechanism of action of non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
👉NSAIDs inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX‑1 and/or COX‑2), reducing prostaglandin synthesis, which decreases inflammation, pain, and fever.
✅Examples: ibuprofen (non‑selective COX inhibitor), celecoxib (selective COX‑2 inhibitor).
a) Classification of adverse drug reactions
👉Type A (augmented)
dose‑related, predictable pharmacological effects.
👉Type B (bizarre)
idiosyncratic, unpredictable, often immune‑mediated.
b) Difference between drug potency and efficacy
👉Potency: the amount of drug needed to produce a given effect (lower dose = more potent).
👉Efficacy: the maximum therapeutic effect a drug can achieve, regardless of dose.
Five drugs used in treatment of acute asthma
👉Short‑acting β2‑agonists (e.g., salbutamol).
👉Inhaled corticosteroids (e.g., budesonide).
👉Iratropium bromide (anticholinergic).
👉Systemic corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone).
👉Magnesium sulfate (adjunct).
Five factors affecting drug absorption
👉Physicochemical properties of the drug (lipophilicity, pKa).
👉Gastric pH and emptying time.
👉Formulation (tablet vs solution).
👉Blood flow at the absorption site.
👉Presence of food or other drugs.
The five “rights” of drug administration
✅Right patient.
✅Right drug.
✅Right dose.
✅Right route.
✅Right time.
SECTION E: ESSAY (answer any ONE)
Five classes of drugs acting on the cardiovascular system
👉Class: Diuretics
👉MOA: inhibit Na⁺/water reabsorption in kidneys, reducing blood volume.
👉Drugs: furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide.
👉Side effects of furosemide: electrolyte imbalance, ototoxicity.
👉Class: β‑blockers
MOA: block β‑adrenergic receptors, decreasing heart rate & contractility.
👉Drugs: metoprolol, propranolol.
👉Side effects of propranolol: bradycardia, bronchospasm.
👉Class: ACE inhibitors
👉MOA: inhibit angiotensin‑converting enzyme, lowering vasoconstriction & aldosterone.
👉Drugs: enalapril, lisinopril.
👉Side effects of enalapril: cough, hyperkalemia.
👉Class: Calcium channel blockers
👉MOA: block Ca²⁺ influx in cardiac & vascular smooth muscle, reducing contractility & vasodilation.
👉Drugs: amlodipine, verapamil.
👉Side effects of verapamil: constipation, hypotension.
👉Class: Antiplatelet agents
👉MOA: inhibit platelet aggregation.
👉Drugs: aspirin, clopidogrel.
👉Side effects of aspirin: gastrointestinal bleeding.
Renin‑angiotensin‑aldosterone system (RAAS) & drugs
👉The RAAS regulates blood pressure & fluid balance: renin → angiotensin I → ACE → angiotensin II (vasoconstriction & aldosterone release).
🔥Drugs acting on RAAS
✅ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril) – block conversion of angiotensin I to II.
✅Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) (e.g., losartan) – block AT1 receptors.
✅Direct renin inhibitors (e.g., aliskiren) – inhibit renin activity.
✅Mechanism: reduce vasoconstriction & aldosterone‑mediated fluid retention, lowering blood pressure.
Five classes of drugs acting on the respiratory system
👉Class: β2‑agonists
✅MOA: stimulate β2‑adrenergic receptors, causing bronchodilation.
✅ Drugs: salbutamol, salmeterol.
Side effects of salbutamol: tremor, tachycardia.
👉Class: Inhaled corticosteroids
✅MOA: suppress airway inflammation.
✅Drugs: fluticasone, budesonide.
✅Side effects of fluticasone: oral candidiasis.
👉Class: Anticholinergics
✅MOA: block muscarinic receptors, reducing bronchial secretions & tone.
✅Drugs: ipratropium, tiotropium.
✅Side effects of ipratropium: dry mouth.
👉Class: Leukotriene modifiers
✅MOA: block leukotriene receptors or synthesis, decreasing inflammation.
✅Drugs: montelukast.
✅Side effects: headache.
👉Class: Methylxanthines
✅MOA: non‑selective phosphodiesterase inhibition & adenosine antagonism, causing bronchodilation.
✅Drugs: theophylline.
✅Side effects of theophylline: arrhythmias, seizures.
